Proposal for new Set methods in JS

Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, p. 1. Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 55. Definition of AI as the study of intelligent agents: Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998), which provides the version that is used in this article. These authors use the term "computational intelligence" as a synonym for artificial intelligence.[1] Russell & Norvig (2003) (who prefer the term "rational agent") and write "The whole-agent view is now widely accepted in the field".[2] Nilsson 1998 Legg & Hutter 2007 Russell & Norvig 2009, p. 2. McCorduck 2004, p. 204 Maloof, Mark. "Artificial Intelligence: An Introduction, p. 37" (PDF). georgetown.edu. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 August 2018. "How AI Is Getting Groundbreaking Changes In Talent Management And HR Tech". Hackernoon. Archived from the original on 11 September 2019. Retrieved 14 February 2020. Schank, Roger C. (1991). "Where's the AI". AI magazine. Vol. 12 no. 4. p. 38. Russell & Norvig 2009. "AlphaGo – Google DeepMind". Archived from the original on 10 March 2016. Allen, Gregory (April 2020). "Department of Defense Joint AI Center - Understanding AI Technology" (PDF). AI.mil - The official site of the Department of Defense Joint Artificial Intelligence Center. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 April 2020. Retrieved 25 April 2020. Optimism of early AI: * Herbert Simon quote: Simon 1965, p. 96 quoted in Crevier 1993, p. 109. * Marvin Minsky quote: Minsky 1967, p. 2 quoted in Crevier 1993, p. 109. Boom of the 1980s: rise of expert systems, Fifth Generation Project, Alvey, MCC, SCI: * McCorduck 2004, pp. 426–441 * Crevier 1993, pp. 161–162,197–203, 211, 240 * Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 24 * NRC 1999, pp. 210–211 * Newquist 1994, pp. 235–248 First AI Winter, Mansfield Amendment, Lighthill report * Crevier 1993, pp. 115–117 * Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 22 * NRC 1999, pp. 212–213 * Howe 1994 * Newquist 1994, pp. 189–201 Second AI winter: * McCorduck 2004, pp. 430–435 * Crevier 1993, pp. 209–210 * NRC 1999, pp. 214–216 * Newquist 1994, pp. 301–318 AI becomes hugely successful in the early 21st century * Clark 2015 Pamela McCorduck (2004, p. 424) writes of "the rough shattering of AI in subfields—vision, natural language, decision theory, genetic algorithms, robotics ... and these with own sub-subfield—that would hardly have anything to say to each other." This list of intelligent traits is based on the topics covered by the major AI textbooks, including: * Russell & Norvig 2003 * Luger & Stubblefield 2004 * Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998 * Nilsson 1998 Kolata 1982. Maker 2006. Biological intelligence vs. intelligence in general: Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 2–3, who make the analogy with aeronautical engineering. McCorduck 2004, pp. 100–101, who writes that there are "two major branches of artificial intelligence: one aimed at producing intelligent behavior regardless of how it was accomplished, and the other aimed at modeling intelligent processes found in nature, particularly human ones." Kolata 1982, a paper in Science, which describes McCarthy's indifference to biological models. Kolata quotes McCarthy as writing: "This is AI, so we don't care if it's psychologically real".[19] McCarthy recently reiterated his position at the AI@50 conference where he said "Artificial intelligence is not, by definition, simulation of human intelligence".[20]. Neats vs. scruffies: * McCorduck 2004, pp. 421–424, 486–489 * Crevier 1993, p. 168 * Nilsson 1983, pp. 10–11 Symbolic vs. sub-symbolic AI: * Nilsson (1998, p. 7), who uses the term "sub-symbolic". General intelligence (strong AI) is discussed in popular introductions to AI: * Kurzweil 1999 and Kurzweil 2005 See the Dartmouth proposal, under Philosophy, below. McCorduck 2004, p. 34. McCorduck 2004, p. xviii. McCorduck 2004, p. 3. McCorduck 2004, pp. 340–400. This is a central idea of Pamela McCorduck's Machines Who Think. She writes: "I like to think of artificial intelligence as the scientific apotheosis of a venerable cultural tradition."[26] "Artificial intelligence in one form or another is an idea that has pervaded Western intellectual history, a dream in urgent need of being realized."[27] "Our history is full of attempts—nutty, eerie, comical, earnest, legendary and real—to make artificial intelligences, to reproduce what is the essential us—bypassing the ordinary means. Back and forth between myth and reality, our imaginations supplying what our workshops couldn't, we have engaged for a long time in this odd form of self-reproduction."[28] She traces the desire back to its Hellenistic roots and calls it the urge to "forge the Gods."[29] "Stephen Hawking believes AI could be mankind's last accomplishment". BetaNews. 21 October 2016. Archived from the original on 28 August 2017. Lombardo P, Boehm I, Nairz K (2020). "RadioComics – Santa Claus and the future of radiology". Eur J Radiol. 122 (1): 108771. doi:10.1016/j.ejrad.2019.108771. PMID 31835078. Ford, Martin; Colvin, Geoff (6 September 2015). "Will robots create more jobs than they destroy?". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 16 June 2018. Retrieved 13 January 2018. AI applications widely used behind the scenes: * Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 28 * Kurzweil 2005, p. 265 * NRC 1999, pp. 216–222 * Newquist 1994, pp. 189–201 AI in myth: * McCorduck 2004, pp. 4–5 * Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 939 AI in early science fiction. * McCorduck 2004, pp. 17–25 Formal reasoning: * Berlinski, David (2000). The Advent of the Algorithm. Harcourt Books. ISBN 978-0-15-601391-8. OCLC 46890682. Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 22 August 2020. Turing, Alan (1948), "Machine Intelligence", in Copeland, B. Jack (ed.), The Essential Turing: The ideas that gave birth to the computer age, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 412, ISBN 978-0-19-825080-7 Russell & Norvig 2009, p. 16. Dartmouth conference: * McCorduck 2004, pp. 111–136 * Crevier 1993, pp. 47–49, who writes "the conference is generally recognized as the official birthdate of the new science." * Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 17, who call the conference "the birth of artificial intelligence." * NRC 1999, pp. 200–201 McCarthy, John (1988). "Review of The Question of Artificial Intelligence". Annals of the History of Computing. 10 (3): 224–229., collected in McCarthy, John (1996). "10. Review of The Question of Artificial Intelligence". Defending AI Research: A Collection of Essays and Reviews. CSLI., p. 73, "[O]ne of the reasons for inventing the term "artificial intelligence" was to escape association with "cybernetics". Its concentration on analog feedback seemed misguided, and I wished to avoid having either to accept Norbert (not Robert) Wiener as a guru or having to argue with him." Hegemony of the Dartmouth conference attendees: * Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 17, who write "for the next 20 years the field would be dominated by these people and their students." * McCorduck 2004, pp. 129–130 Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 18. Schaeffer J. (2009) Didn't Samuel Solve That Game?. In: One Jump Ahead. Springer, Boston, MA Samuel, A. L. (July 1959). "Some Studies in Machine Learning Using the Game of Checkers". IBM Journal of Research and Development. 3 (3): 210–229. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.368.2254. doi:10.1147/rd.33.0210. "Golden years" of AI (successful symbolic reasoning programs 1956–1973): * McCorduck 2004, pp. 243–252 * Crevier 1993, pp. 52–107 * Moravec 1988, p. 9 * Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 18–21 The programs described are Arthur Samuel's checkers program for the IBM 701, Daniel Bobrow's STUDENT, Newell and Simon's Logic Theorist and Terry Winograd's SHRDLU. DARPA pours money into undirected pure research into AI during the 1960s: * McCorduck 2004, p. 131 * Crevier 1993, pp. 51, 64–65 * NRC 1999, pp. 204–205 AI in England: * Howe 1994 Lighthill 1973. Expert systems: * ACM 1998, I.2.1 * Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 22–24 * Luger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 227–331 * Nilsson 1998, chpt. 17.4 * McCorduck 2004, pp. 327–335, 434–435 * Crevier 1993, pp. 145–62, 197–203 * Newquist 1994, pp. 155–183 Mead, Carver A.; Ismail, Mohammed (8 May 1989). Analog VLSI Implementation of Neural Systems (PDF). The Kluwer International Series in Engineering and Computer Science. 80. Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers. doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-1639-8. ISBN 978-1-4613-1639-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 November 2019. Retrieved 24 January 2020. Formal methods are now preferred ("Victory of the neats"): * Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 25–26 * McCorduck 2004, pp. 486–487 McCorduck 2004, pp. 480–483. Markoff 2011. 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Cognitive Systems Research. 48: 39–55. doi:10.1016/j.cogsys.2017.05.001. hdl:2318/1665207. S2CID 206868967. Problem solving, puzzle solving, game playing and deduction: * Russell & Norvig 2003, chpt. 3–9, * Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, chpt. 2,3,7,9, * Luger & Stubblefield 2004, chpt. 3,4,6,8, * Nilsson 1998, chpt. 7–12 Uncertain reasoning: * Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 452–644, * Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 345–395, * Luger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 333–381, * Nilsson 1998, chpt. 19 Psychological evidence of sub-symbolic reasoning: * Wason & Shapiro (1966) showed that people do poorly on completely abstract problems, but if the problem is restated to allow the use of intuitive social intelligence, performance dramatically improves. (See Wason selection task) * Kahneman, Slovic & Tversky (1982) have shown that people are terrible at elementary problems that involve uncertain reasoning. (See list of cognitive biases for several examples). * Lakoff & Núñez (2000) have controversially argued that even our skills at mathematics depend on knowledge and skills that come from "the body", i.e. sensorimotor and perceptual skills. (See Where Mathematics Comes From) Knowledge representation: * ACM 1998, I.2.4, * Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 320–363, * Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 23–46, 69–81, 169–196, 235–277, 281–298, 319–345, * Luger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 227–243, * Nilsson 1998, chpt. 18 Knowledge engineering: * Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 260–266, * Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 199–233, * Nilsson 1998, chpt. ≈17.1–17.4 Representing categories and relations: Semantic networks, description logics, inheritance (including frames and scripts): * Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 349–354, * Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 174–177, * Luger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 248–258, * Nilsson 1998, chpt. 18.3 Representing events and time:Situation calculus, event calculus, fluent calculus (including solving the frame problem): * Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 328–341, * Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 281–298, * Nilsson 1998, chpt. 18.2 Causal calculus: * Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 335–337 Representing knowledge about knowledge: Belief calculus, modal logics: * Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 341–344, * Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 275–277 Sikos, Leslie F. (June 2017). Description Logics in Multimedia Reasoning. Cham: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-54066-5. ISBN 978-3-319-54066-5. S2CID 3180114. Archived from the original on 29 August 2017. Ontology: * Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 320–328 Smoliar, Stephen W.; Zhang, HongJiang (1994). "Content based video indexing and retrieval". IEEE Multimedia. 1 (2): 62–72. doi:10.1109/93.311653. S2CID 32710913. Neumann, Bernd; Möller, Ralf (January 2008). "On scene interpretation with description logics". Image and Vision Computing. 26 (1): 82–101. doi:10.1016/j.imavis.2007.08.013. Kuperman, G. J.; Reichley, R. M.; Bailey, T. C. (1 July 2006). "Using Commercial Knowledge Bases for Clinical Decision Support: Opportunities, Hurdles, and Recommendations". Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association. 13 (4): 369–371. doi:10.1197/jamia.M2055. PMC 1513681. PMID 16622160. MCGARRY, KEN (1 December 2005). "A survey of interestingness measures for knowledge discovery". The Knowledge Engineering Review. 20 (1): 39–61. doi:10.1017/S0269888905000408. S2CID 14987656. Bertini, M; Del Bimbo, A; Torniai, C (2006). "Automatic annotation and semantic retrieval of video sequences using multimedia ontologies". MM '06 Proceedings of the 14th ACM international conference on Multimedia. 14th ACM international conference on Multimedia. Santa Barbara: ACM. pp. 679–682. Qualification problem: * McCarthy & Hayes 1969 * Russell & Norvig 2003[page needed] While McCarthy was primarily concerned with issues in the logical representation of actions, Russell & Norvig 2003 apply the term to the more general issue of default reasoning in the vast network of assumptions underlying all our commonsense knowledge. Default reasoning and default logic, non-monotonic logics, circumscription, closed world assumption, abduction (Poole et al. places abduction under "default reasoning". Luger et al. places this under "uncertain reasoning"): * Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 354–360, * Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 248–256, 323–335, * Luger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 335–363, * Nilsson 1998, ~18.3.3 Breadth of commonsense knowledge: * Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 21, * Crevier 1993, pp. 113–114, * Moravec 1988, p. 13, * Lenat & Guha 1989 (Introduction) Dreyfus & Dreyfus 1986. Gladwell 2005. Expert knowledge as embodied intuition: * Dreyfus & Dreyfus 1986 (Hubert Dreyfus is a philosopher and critic of AI who was among the first to argue that most useful human knowledge was encoded sub-symbolically. See Dreyfus' critique of AI) * Gladwell 2005 (Gladwell's Blink is a popular introduction to sub-symbolic reasoning and knowledge.) * Hawkins & Blakeslee 2005 (Hawkins argues that sub-symbolic knowledge should be the primary focus of AI research.) Planning: * ACM 1998, ~I.2.8, * Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 375–459, * Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 281–316, * Luger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 314–329, * Nilsson 1998, chpt. 10.1–2, 22 Information value theory: * Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 600–604 Classical planning: * Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 375–430, * Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 281–315, * Luger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 314–329, * Nilsson 1998, chpt. 10.1–2, 22 Planning and acting in non-deterministic domains: conditional planning, execution monitoring, replanning and continuous planning: * Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 430–449 Multi-agent planning and emergent behavior: * Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 449–455 Turing 1950. Solomonoff 1956. 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Archived from the original on 11 June 2020. Retrieved 11 June 2020. Machine perception: * Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 537–581, 863–898 * Nilsson 1998, ~chpt. 6 Speech recognition: * ACM 1998, ~I.2.7 * Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 568–578 Object recognition: * Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 885–892 Computer vision: * ACM 1998, I.2.10 * Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 863–898 * Nilsson 1998, chpt. 6 Robotics: * ACM 1998, I.2.9, * Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 901–942, * Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 443–460 Moving and configuration space: * Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 916–932 Tecuci 2012. Robotic mapping (localization, etc): * Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 908–915 Cadena, Cesar; Carlone, Luca; Carrillo, Henry; Latif, Yasir; Scaramuzza, Davide; Neira, Jose; Reid, Ian; Leonard, John J. (December 2016). "Past, Present, and Future of Simultaneous Localization and Mapping: Toward the Robust-Perception Age". IEEE Transactions on Robotics. 32 (6): 1309–1332. arXiv:1606.05830. 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Retrieved 26 April 2018. Domingos 2015. Artificial brain arguments: AI requires a simulation of the operation of the human brain * Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 957 * Crevier 1993, pp. 271 and 279 A few of the people who make some form of the argument: * Moravec 1988 * Kurzweil 2005, p. 262 * Hawkins & Blakeslee 2005 The most extreme form of this argument (the brain replacement scenario) was put forward by Clark Glymour in the mid-1970s and was touched on by Zenon Pylyshyn and John Searle in 1980. Goertzel, Ben; Lian, Ruiting; Arel, Itamar; de Garis, Hugo; Chen, Shuo (December 2010). "A world survey of artificial brain projects, Part II: Biologically inspired cognitive architectures". Neurocomputing. 74 (1–3): 30–49. doi:10.1016/j.neucom.2010.08.012. Nilsson 1983, p. 10. Nils Nilsson writes: "Simply put, there is wide disagreement in the field about what AI is all about."[163] AI's immediate precursors: * McCorduck 2004, pp. 51–107 * Crevier 1993, pp. 27–32 * Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 15, 940 * Moravec 1988, p. 3 Haugeland 1985, pp. 112–117 The most dramatic case of sub-symbolic AI being pushed into the background was the devastating critique of perceptrons by Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert in 1969. See History of AI, AI winter, or Frank Rosenblatt. Cognitive simulation, Newell and Simon, AI at CMU (then called Carnegie Tech): * McCorduck 2004, pp. 139–179, 245–250, 322–323 (EPAM) * Crevier 1993, pp. 145–149 Soar (history): * McCorduck 2004, pp. 450–451 * Crevier 1993, pp. 258–263 McCarthy and AI research at SAIL and SRI International: * McCorduck 2004, pp. 251–259 * Crevier 1993 AI research at Edinburgh and in France, birth of Prolog: * Crevier 1993, pp. 193–196 * Howe 1994 AI at MIT under Marvin Minsky in the 1960s : * McCorduck 2004, pp. 259–305 * Crevier 1993, pp. 83–102, 163–176 * Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 19 Cyc: * McCorduck 2004, p. 489, who calls it "a determinedly scruffy enterprise" * Crevier 1993, pp. 239–243 * Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 363−365 * Lenat & Guha 1989 Knowledge revolution: * McCorduck 2004, pp. 266–276, 298–300, 314, 421 * Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 22–23 Frederick, Hayes-Roth; William, Murray; Leonard, Adelman. "Expert systems". AccessScience. doi:10.1036/1097-8542.248550. Embodied approaches to AI: * McCorduck 2004, pp. 454–462 * Brooks 1990 * Moravec 1988 Weng et al. 2001. Lungarella et al. 2003. Asada et al. 2009. Oudeyer 2010. Revival of connectionism: * Crevier 1993, pp. 214–215 * Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 25 Computational intelligence * IEEE Computational Intelligence Society Archived 9 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine Hutson, Matthew (16 February 2018). "Artificial intelligence faces reproducibility crisis". Science. pp. 725–726. Bibcode:2018Sci...359..725H. doi:10.1126/science.359.6377.725. Archived from the original on 29 April 2018. Retrieved 28 April 2018. Norvig 2012. Langley 2011. Katz 2012. The intelligent agent paradigm: * Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 27, 32–58, 968–972 * Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 7–21 * Luger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 235–240 * Hutter 2005, pp. 125–126 The definition used in this article, in terms of goals, actions, perception and environment, is due to Russell & Norvig (2003). 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They work, but they work by brute force." (p. 198.) Domingos, Pedro, "Our Digital Doubles: AI will serve our species, not control it", Scientific American, vol. 319, no. 3 (September 2018), pp. 88–93. Gopnik, Alison, "Making AI More Human: Artificial intelligence has staged a revival by starting to incorporate what we know about how children learn", Scientific American, vol. 316, no. 6 (June 2017), pp. 60–65. Johnston, John (2008) The Allure of Machinic Life: Cybernetics, Artificial Life, and the New AI, MIT Press. Koch, Christof, "Proust among the Machines", Scientific American, vol. 321, no. 6 (December 2019), pp. 46–49. Christof Koch doubts the possibility of "intelligent" machines attaining consciousness, because "[e]ven the most sophisticated brain simulations are unlikely to produce conscious feelings." (p. 48.) According to Koch, "Whether machines can become sentient [is important] for ethical reasons. If computers experience life through their own senses, they cease to be purely a means to an end determined by their usefulness to... humans. Per GNW [the Global Neuronal Workspace theory], they turn from mere objects into subjects... with a point of view.... Once computers' cognitive abilities rival those of humanity, their impulse to push for legal and political rights will become irresistible – the right not to be deleted, not to have their memories wiped clean, not to suffer pain and degradation. The alternative, embodied by IIT [Integrated Information Theory], is that computers will remain only supersophisticated machinery, ghostlike empty shells, devoid of what we value most: the feeling of life itself." (p. 49.) Marcus, Gary, "Am I Human?: Researchers need new ways to distinguish artificial intelligence from the natural kind", Scientific American, vol. 316, no. 3 (March 2017), pp. 58–63. A stumbling block to AI has been an incapacity for reliable disambiguation. An example is the "pronoun disambiguation problem": a machine has no way of determining to whom or what a pronoun in a sentence refers. (p. 61.) E McGaughey, 'Will Robots Automate Your Job Away? Full Employment, Basic Income, and Economic Democracy' (2018) SSRN, part 2(3) Archived 24 May 2018 at the Wayback Machine. George Musser, "Artificial Imagination: How machines could learn creativity and common sense, among other human qualities", Scientific American, vol. 320, no. 5 (May 2019), pp. 58–63. Myers, Courtney Boyd ed. (2009). "The AI Report" Archived 29 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Forbes June 2009 Raphael, Bertram (1976). The Thinking Computer. W.H.Freeman and Company. ISBN 978-0-7167-0723-3. Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 22 August 2020. Scharre, Paul, "Killer Apps: The Real Dangers of an AI Arms Race", Foreign Affairs, vol. 98, no. 3 (May/June 2019), pp. 135–44. "Today's AI technologies are powerful but unreliable. Rules-based systems cannot deal with circumstances their programmers did not anticipate. Learning systems are limited by the data on which they were trained. AI failures have already led to tragedy. Advanced autopilot features in cars, although they perform well in some circumstances, have driven cars without warning into trucks, concrete barriers, and parked cars. In the wrong situation, AI systems go from supersmart to superdumb in an instant. When an enemy is trying to manipulate and hack an AI system, the risks are even greater." (p. 140.) Serenko, Alexander (2010). "The development of an AI journal ranking based on the revealed preference approach" (PDF). Journal of Informetrics. 4 (4): 447–459. doi:10.1016/j.joi.2010.04.001. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 24 August 2013. Serenko, Alexander; Michael Dohan (2011). "Comparing the expert survey and citation impact journal ranking methods: Example from the field of Artificial Intelligence" (PDF). Journal of Informetrics. 5 (4): 629–649. doi:10.1016/j.joi.2011.06.002. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 12 September 2013. Sun, R. & Bookman, L. (eds.), Computational Architectures: Integrating Neural and Symbolic Processes. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Needham, MA. 1994. Tom Simonite (29 December 2014). "2014 in Computing: Breakthroughs in Artificial Intelligence". MIT Technology Review. Tooze, Adam, "Democracy and Its Discontents", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 10 (6 June 2019), pp. 52–53, 56–57. "Democracy has no clear answer for the mindless operation of bureaucratic and technological power. We may indeed be witnessing its extension in the form of artificial intelligence and robotics. Likewise, after decades of dire warning, the environmental problem remains fundamentally unaddressed.... Bureaucratic overreach and environmental catastrophe are precisely the kinds of slow-moving existential challenges that democracies deal with very badly.... Finally, there is the threat du jour: corporations and the technologies they promote." (pp. 56–57.)

# Liberty House Club **A Parallel Binance Chain to Enable Smart Contracts** _NOTE: This document is under development. Please check regularly for updates!_ ## Table of Contents - [Motivation](#motivation) - [Design Principles](#design-principles) - [Consensus and Validator Quorum](#consensus-and-validator-quorum) * [Proof of Staked Authority](#proof-of-staked-authority) * [Validator Quorum](#validator-quorum) * [Security and Finality](#security-and-finality) * [Reward](#reward) - [Token Economy](#token-economy) * [Native Token](#native-token) * [Other Tokens](#other-tokens) - [Cross-Chain Transfer and Communication](#cross-chain-transfer-and-communication) * [Cross-Chain Transfer](#cross-chain-transfer) * [BC to BSC Architecture](#bc-to-bsc-architecture) * [BSC to BC Architecture](#bsc-to-bc-architecture) * [Timeout and Error Handling](#timeout-and-error-handling) * [Cross-Chain User Experience](#cross-chain-user-experience) * [Cross-Chain Contract Event](#cross-chain-contract-event) - [Staking and Governance](#staking-and-governance) * [Staking on BC](#staking-on-bc) * [Rewarding](#rewarding) * [Slashing](#slashing) - [Relayers](#relayers) * [BSC Relayers](#bsc-relayers) * [Oracle Relayers](#oracle-relayers) - [Outlook](#outlook) # Motivation After its mainnet community [launch](https://www.binance.com/en/blog/327334696200323072/Binance-DEX-Launches-on-Binance-Chain-Invites-Further-Community-Development) in April 2019, [Binance Chain](https://www.binance.org) has exhibited its high speed and large throughput design. Binance Chain’s primary focus, its native [decentralized application](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decentralized_application) (“dApp”) [Binance DEX](https://www.binance.org/trade), has demonstrated its low-latency matching with large capacity headroom by handling millions of trading volume in a short time. Flexibility and usability are often in an inverse relationship with performance. The concentration on providing a convenient digital asset issuing and trading venue also brings limitations. Binance Chain's most requested feature is the programmable extendibility, or simply the [Smart Contract](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_contract) and Virtual Machine functions. Digital asset issuers and owners struggle to add new decentralized features for their assets or introduce any sort of community governance and activities. Despite this high demand for adding the Smart Contract feature onto Binance Chain, it is a hard decision to make. The execution of a Smart Contract may slow down the exchange function and add non-deterministic factors to trading. If that compromise could be tolerated, it might be a straightforward idea to introduce a new Virtual Machine specification based on [Tendermint](https://tendermint.com/core/), based on the current underlying consensus protocol and major [RPC](https://docs.binance.org/api-reference/node-rpc.html) implementation of Binance Chain. But all these will increase the learning requirements for all existing dApp communities, and will not be very welcomed. We propose a parallel blockchain of the current Binance Chain to retain the high performance of the native DEX blockchain and to support a friendly Smart Contract function at the same time. # Design Principles After the creation of the parallel blockchain into the Binance Chain ecosystem, two blockchains will run side by side to provide different services. The new parallel chain will be called “**Binance Smart Chain**” (short as “**BSC**” for the below sections), while the existing mainnet remains named “**Binance Chain**” (short as “**BC**” for the below sections). Here are the design principles of **BSC**: 1. **Standalone Blockchain**: technically, BSC is a standalone blockchain, instead of a layer-2 solution. Most BSC fundamental technical and business functions should be self-contained so that it can run well even if the BC stopped for a short period. 2. **Ethereum Compatibility**: The first practical and widely-used Smart Contract platform is Ethereum. To take advantage of the relatively mature applications and community, BSC chooses to be compatible with the existing Ethereum mainnet. This means most of the **dApps**, ecosystem components, and toolings will work with BSC and require zero or minimum changes; BSC node will require similar (or a bit higher) hardware specification and skills to run and operate. The implementation should leave room for BSC to catch up with further Ethereum upgrades. 3. **Staking Involved Consensus and Governance**: Staking-based consensus is more environmentally friendly and leaves more flexible option to the community governance. Expectedly, this consensus should enable better network performance over [proof-of-work](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof_of_work) blockchain system, i.e., faster blocking time and higher transaction capacity. 4. **Native Cross-Chain Communication**: both BC and BSC will be implemented with native support for cross-chain communication among the two blockchains. The communication protocol should be bi-directional, decentralized, and trustless. It will concentrate on moving digital assets between BC and BSC, i.e., [BEP2](https://github.com/binance-chain/BEPs/blob/master/BEP2.md) tokens, and eventually, other BEP tokens introduced later. The protocol should care for the minimum of other items stored in the state of the blockchains, with only a few exceptions. # Consensus and Validator Quorum Based on the above design principles, the consensus protocol of BSC is to fulfill the following goals: 1. Blocking time should be shorter than Ethereum network, e.g. 5 seconds or even shorter. 2. It requires limited time to confirm the finality of transactions, e.g. around 1-min level or shorter. 3. There is no inflation of native token: BNB, the block reward is collected from transaction fees, and it will be paid in BNB. 4. It is compatible with Ethereum system as much as possible. 5. It allows modern [proof-of-stake](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof_of_stake) blockchain network governance. ## Proof of Staked Authority Although Proof-of-Work (PoW) has been recognized as a practical mechanism to implement a decentralized network, it is not friendly to the environment and also requires a large size of participants to maintain the security. Ethereum and some other blockchain networks, such as [MATIC Bor](https://github.com/maticnetwork/bor), [TOMOChain](https://tomochain.com/), [GoChain](https://gochain.io/), [xDAI](https://xdai.io/), do use [Proof-of-Authority(PoA)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof_of_authority) or its variants in different scenarios, including both testnet and mainnet. PoA provides some defense to 51% attack, with improved efficiency and tolerance to certain levels of Byzantine players (malicious or hacked). It serves as an easy choice to pick as the fundamentals. Meanwhile, the PoA protocol is most criticized for being not as decentralized as PoW, as the validators, i.e. the nodes that take turns to produce blocks, have all the authorities and are prone to corruption and security attacks. Other blockchains, such as EOS and Lisk both, introduce different types of [Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS)](https://en.bitcoinwiki.org/wiki/DPoS) to allow the token holders to vote and elect the validator set. It increases the decentralization and favors community governance. BSC here proposes to combine DPoS and PoA for consensus, so that: 1. Blocks are produced by a limited set of validators 2. Validators take turns to produce blocks in a PoA manner, similar to [Ethereum’s Clique](https://eips.ethereum.org/EIPS/eip-225) consensus design 3. Validator set are elected in and out based on a staking based governance ## Validator Quorum In the genesis stage, a few trusted nodes will run as the initial Validator Set. After the blocking starts, anyone can compete to join as candidates to elect as a validator. The staking status decides the top 21 most staked nodes to be the next validator set, and such an election will repeat every 24 hours. **BNB** is the token used to stake for BSC. In order to remain as compatible as Ethereum and upgradeable to future consensus protocols to be developed, BSC chooses to rely on the **BC** for staking management (Please refer to the below “[Staking and Governance](#staking-and-governance)” section). There is a **dedicated staking module for BSC on BC**. It will accept BSC staking from BNB holders and calculate the highest staked node set. Upon every UTC midnight, BC will issue a verifiable `ValidatorSetUpdate` cross-chain message to notify BSC to update its validator set. While producing further blocks, the existing BSC validators check whether there is a `ValidatorSetUpdate` message relayed onto BSC periodically. If there is, they will update the validator set after an **epoch period**, i.e. a predefined number of blocking time. For example, if BSC produces a block every 5 seconds, and the epoch period is 240 blocks, then the current validator set will check and update the validator set for the next epoch in 1200 seconds (20 minutes). ## Security and Finality Given there are more than ½\*N+1 validators are honest, PoA based networks usually work securely and properly. However, there are still cases where certain amount Byzantine validators may still manage to attack the network, e.g. through the “[Clone Attack](https://arxiv.org/pdf/1902.10244.pdf)”. To secure as much as BC, BSC users are encouraged to wait until receiving blocks sealed by more than ⅔\*N+1 different validators. In that way, the BSC can be trusted at a similar security level to BC and can tolerate less than ⅓\*N Byzantine validators. With 21 validators, if the block time is 5 seconds, the ⅔\*N+1 different validator seals will need a time period of (⅔\*21+1)*5 = 75 seconds. Any critical applications for BSC may have to wait for ⅔\*N+1 to ensure a relatively secure finality. However, besides such arrangement, BSC does introduce **Slashing** logic to penalize Byzantine validators for **double signing** or **inavailability**, which will be covered in the “Staking and Governance” section later. This Slashing logic will expose the malicious validators in a very short time and make the “Clone Attack” very hard or extremely non-beneficial to execute. With this enhancement, ½\*N+1 or even fewer blocks are enough as confirmation for most transactions. ## Reward All the BSC validators in the current validator set will be rewarded with transaction **fees in BNB**. As BNB is not an inflationary token, there will be no mining rewards as what Bitcoin and Ethereum network generate, and the gas fee is the major reward for validators. As BNB is also utility tokens with other use cases, delegators and validators will still enjoy other benefits of holding BNB. The reward for validators is the fees collected from transactions in each block. Validators can decide how much to give back to the delegators who stake their BNB to them, in order to attract more staking. Every validator will take turns to produce the blocks in the same probability (if they stick to 100% liveness), thus, in the long run, all the stable validators may get a similar size of the reward. Meanwhile, the stakes on each validator may be different, so this brings a counter-intuitive situation that more users trust and delegate to one validator, they potentially get less reward. So rational delegators will tend to delegate to the one with fewer stakes as long as the validator is still trustful (insecure validator may bring slashable risk). In the end, the stakes on all the validators will have less variation. This will actually prevent the stake concentration and “winner wins forever” problem seen on some other networks. Some parts of the gas fee will also be rewarded to relayers for Cross-Chain communication. Please refer to the “[Relayers](#relayers)” section below. # Token Economy BC and BSC share the same token universe for BNB and BEP2 tokens. This defines: 1. The same token can circulate on both networks, and flow between them bi-directionally via a cross-chain communication mechanism. 2. The total circulation of the same token should be managed across the two networks, i.e. the total effective supply of a token should be the sum of the token’s total effective supply on both BSC and BC. 3. The tokens can be initially created on BSC in a similar format as ERC20 token standard, or on BC as a BEP2, then created on the other. There are native ways on both networks to link the two and secure the total supply of the token. ## Native Token BNB will run on BSC in the same way as ETH runs on Ethereum so that it remains as “native token” for both BSC and BC. This means, in addition to BNB is used to pay most of the fees on Binance Chain and Binance DEX, BNB will be also used to: 1. pay “fees“ to deploy smart contracts on BSC 2. stake on selected BSC validators, and get corresponding rewards 3. perform cross-chain operations, such as transfer token assets across BC and BSC ### Seed Fund Certain amounts of BNB will be burnt on BC and minted on BSC during its genesis stage. This amount is called “Seed Fund” to circulate on BSC after the first block, which will be dispatched to the initial BC-to-BSC Relayer(described in later sections) and initial validator set introduced at genesis. These BNBs are used to pay transaction fees in the early stage to transfer more BNB from BC onto BSC via the cross-chain mechanism. The BNB cross-chain transfer is discussed in a later section, but for BC to BSC transfer, it is generally to lock BNB on BC from the source address of the transfer to a system-controlled address and unlock the corresponding amount from special contract to the target address of the transfer on BSC, or reversely, when transferring from BSC to BC, it is to lock BNB from the source address on BSC into a special contract and release locked amount on BC from the system address to the target address. The logic is related to native code on BC and a series of smart contracts on BSC. ## Other Tokens BC supports BEP2 tokens and upcoming [BEP8 tokens](https://github.com/binance-chain/BEPs/pull/69), which are native assets transferrable and tradable (if listed) via fast transactions and sub-second finality. Meanwhile, as BSC is Ethereum compatible, it is natural to support ERC20 tokens on BSC, which here is called “**BEP2E**” (with the real name to be introduced by the future BEPs,it potentially covers BEP8 as well). BEP2E may be “Enhanced” by adding a few more methods to expose more information, such as token denomination, decimal precision definition and the owner address who can decide the Token Binding across the chains. BSC and BC work together to ensure that one token can circulate in both formats with confirmed total supply and be used in different use cases. ### Token Binding BEP2 tokens will be extended to host a new attribute to associate the token with a BSC BEP2E token contract, called “**Binder**”, and this process of association is called “**Token Binding**”. Token Binding can happen at any time after BEP2 and BEP2E are ready. The token owners of either BEP2 or BEP2E don’t need to bother about the Binding, until before they really want to use the tokens on different scenarios. Issuers can either create BEP2 first or BEP2E first, and they can be bound at a later time. Of course, it is encouraged for all the issuers of BEP2 and BEP2E to set the Binding up early after the issuance. A typical procedure to bind the BEP2 and BEP2E will be like the below: 1. Ensure both the BEP2 token and the BEP2E token both exist on each blockchain, with the same total supply. BEP2E should have 3 more methods than typical ERC20 token standard: * symbol(): get token symbol * decimals(): get the number of the token decimal digits * owner(): get **BEP2E contract owner’s address.** This value should be initialized in the BEP2E contract constructor so that the further binding action can verify whether the action is from the BEP2E owner. 2. Decide the initial circulation on both blockchains. Suppose the total supply is *S*, and the expected initial circulating supply on BC is *K*, then the owner should lock S-K tokens to a system controlled address on BC. 3. Equivalently, *K* tokens is locked in the special contract on BSC, which handles major binding functions and is named as **TokenHub**. The issuer of the BEP2E token should lock the *K* amount of that token into TokenHub, resulting in *S-K* tokens to circulate on BSC. Thus the total circulation across 2 blockchains remains as *S*. 4. The issuer of BEP2 token sends the bind transaction on BC. Once the transaction is executed successfully after proper verification: * It transfers *S-K* tokens to a system-controlled address on BC. * A cross-chain bind request package will be created, waiting for Relayers to relay. 5. BSC Relayers will relay the cross-chain bind request package into **TokenHub** on BSC, and the corresponding request and information will be stored into the contract. 6. The contract owner and only the owner can run a special method of TokenHub contract, `ApproveBind`, to verify the binding request to mark it as a success. It will confirm: * the token has not been bound; * the binding is for the proper symbol, with proper total supply and decimal information; * the proper lock are done on both networks; 10. Once the `ApproveBind` method has succeeded, TokenHub will mark the two tokens are bounded and share the same circulation on BSC, and the status will be propagated back to BC. After this final confirmation, the BEP2E contract address and decimals will be written onto the BEP2 token as a new attribute on BC, and the tokens can be transferred across the two blockchains bidirectionally. If the ApproveBind fails, the failure event will also be propagated back to BC to release the locked tokens, and the above steps can be re-tried later. # Cross-Chain Transfer and Communication Cross-chain communication is the key foundation to allow the community to take advantage of the dual chain structure: * users are free to create any tokenization, financial products, and digital assets on BSC or BC as they wish * the items on BSC can be manually and programmingly traded and circulated in a stable, high throughput, lighting fast and friendly environment of BC * users can operate these in one UI and tooling ecosystem. ## Cross-Chain Transfer The cross-chain transfer is the key communication between the two blockchains. Essentially the logic is: 1. the `transfer-out` blockchain will lock the amount from source owner addresses into a system controlled address/contracts; 2. the `transfer-in` blockchain will unlock the amount from the system controlled address/contracts and send it to target addresses. The cross-chain transfer package message should allow the BSC Relayers and BC **Oracle Relayers** to verify: 1. Enough amount of token assets are removed from the source address and locked into a system controlled addresses/contracts on the source blockchain. And this can be confirmed on the target blockchain. 2. Proper amounts of token assets are released from a system controlled addresses/contracts and allocated into target addresses on the target blockchain. If this fails, it can be confirmed on source blockchain, so that the locked token can be released back (may deduct fees). 3. The sum of the total circulation of the token assets across the 2 blockchains are not changed after this transfer action completes, no matter if the transfer succeeds or not.  The architecture of cross-chain communication is as in the above diagram. To accommodate the 2 heteroid systems, communication handling is different in each direction. ## BC to BSC Architecture BC is a Tendermint-based, instant finality blockchain. Validators with at least ⅔\*N+1 of the total voting power will co-sign each block on the chain. So that it is practical to verify the block transactions and even the state value via **Block Header** and **Merkle Proof** verification. This has been researched and implemented as “**Light-Client Protocol**”, which are intensively discussed in [the Ethereum](https://github.com/ethereum/wiki/wiki/Light-client-protocol) community, studied and implemented for [Cosmos inter-chain communication](https://github.com/cosmos/ics/blob/a4173c91560567bdb7cc9abee8e61256fc3725e9/spec/ics-007-tendermint-client/README.md). BC-to-BSC communication will be verified in an “**on-chain light client**” implemented via BSC **Smart Contracts** (some of them may be **“pre-compiled”**). After some transactions and state change happen on BC, if a transaction is defined to trigger cross-chain communication,the Cross-chain “**package**” message will be created and **BSC Relayers** will pass and submit them onto BSC as data into the "build-in system contracts". The build-in system contracts will verify the package and execute the transactions if it passes the verification. The verification will be guaranteed with the below design: 1. BC blocking status will be synced to the light client contracts on BSC from time to time, via block header and pre-commits, for the below information: * block and app hash of BC that are signed by validators * current validatorset, and validator set update 2. the key-value from the blockchain state will be verified based on the Merkle Proof and information from above #1. After confirming the key-value is accurate and trustful, the build-in system contracts will execute the actions corresponding to the cross-chain packages. Some examples of such packages that can be created for BC-to-BSC are: 1. Bind: bind the BEP2 tokens and BEP2E 2. Transfer: transfer tokens after binding, this means the circulation will decrease (be locked) from BC and appear in the target address balance on BSC 3. Error Handling: to handle any timeout/failure event for BSC-to-BC communication 4. Validatorset update of BSC To ensure no duplication, proper message sequence and timely timeout, there is a “Channel” concept introduced on BC to manage any types of the communication. For relayers, please also refer to the below “Relayers” section. ## BSC to BC Architecture BSC uses Proof of Staked Authority consensus protocol, which has a chance to fork and requires confirmation of more blocks. One block only has the signature of one validator, so that it is not easy to rely on one block to verify data from BSC. To take full advantage of validator quorum of BC, an idea similar to many [Bridge ](https://github.com/poanetwork/poa-bridge)or Oracle blockchains is adopted: 1. The cross-chain communication requests from BSC will be submitted and executed onto BSC as transactions. The execution of the transanction wil emit `Events`, and such events can be observed and packaged in certain “**Oracle**” onto BC. Instead of Block Headers, Hash and Merkle Proof, this type of “Oracle” package directly contains the cross-chain information for actions, such as sender, receiver and amount for transfer. 2. To ensure the security of the Oracle, the validators of BC will form anothe quorum of “**Oracle Relayers**”. Each validator of the BC should run a **dedicated process** as the Oracle Relayer. These Oracle Relayers will submit and vote for the cross-chain communication package, like Oracle, onto BC, using the same validator keys. Any package signed by more than ⅔\*N+1 Oracle Relayers’ voting power is as secure as any block signed by ⅔\*N+1 of the same quorum of validators’ voting power. By using the same validator quorum, it saves the light client code on BC and continuous block updates onto BC. Such Oracles also have Oracle IDs and types, to ensure sequencing and proper error handling. ## Timeout and Error Handling There are scenarios that the cross-chain communication fails. For example, the relayed package cannot be executed on BSC due to some coding bug in the contracts. **Timeout and error handling logics are** used in such scenarios. For the recognizable user and system errors or any expected exceptions, the two networks should heal themselves. For example, when BC to BSC transfer fails, BSC will issue a failure event and Oracle Relayers will execute a refund on BC; when BSC to BC transfer fails, BC will issue a refund package for Relayer to relay in order to unlock the fund. However, unexpected error or exception may still happen on any step of the cross-chain communication. In such a case, the Relayers and Oracle Relayers will discover that the corresponding cross-chain channel is stuck in a particular sequence. After a Timeout period, the Relayers and Oracle Relayers can request a “SkipSequence” transaction, the stuck sequence will be marked as “Unexecutable”. A corresponding alerts will be raised, and the community has to discuss how to handle this scenario, e.g. payback via the sponsor of the validators, or event clear the fund during next network upgrade. ## Cross-Chain User Experience Ideally, users expect to use two parallel chains in the same way as they use one single chain. It requires more aggregated transaction types to be added onto the cross-chain communication to enable this, which will add great complexity, tight coupling, and maintenance burden. Here BC and BSC only implement the basic operations to enable the value flow in the initial launch and leave most of the user experience work to client side UI, such as wallets. E.g. a great wallet may allow users to sell a token directly from BSC onto BC’s DEX order book, in a secure way. ## Cross-Chain Contract Event Cross-Chain Contract Event (CCCE) is designed to allow a smart contract to trigger cross-chain transactions, directly through the contract code. This becomes possible based on: 1. Standard system contracts can be provided to serve operations callable by general smart contracts; 2. Standard events can be emitted by the standard contracts; 3. Oracle Relayers can capture the standard events, and trigger the corresponding cross-chain operations; 4. Dedicated, code-managed address (account) can be created on BC and accessed by the contracts on the BSC, here it is named as **“Contract Address on BC” (CAoB)**. Several standard operations are implemented: 1. BSC to BC transfer: this is implemented in the same way as normal BSC to BC transfer, by only triggered via standard contract. The fund can be transferred to any addresses on BC, including the corresponding CAoB of the transfer originating contract. 2. Transfer on BC: this is implemented as a special cross-chain transfer, while the real transfer is from **CAoB** to any other address (even another CAoB). 3. BC to BSC transfer: this is implemented as two-pass cross-chain communication. The first is triggered by the BSC contract and propagated onto BC, and then in the second pass, BC will start a normal BC to BSC cross-chain transfer, from **CAoB** to contract address on BSC. A special note should be paid on that the BSC contract only increases balance upon any transfer coming in on the second pass, and the error handling in the second pass is the same as the normal BC to BSC transfer. 4. IOC (Immediate-Or-Cancel) Trade Out: the primary goal of transferring assets to BC is to trade. This event will instruct to trade a certain amount of an asset in CAoB into another asset as much as possible and transfer out all the results, i.e. the left the source and the traded target tokens of the trade, back to BSC. BC will handle such relayed events by sending an “Immediate-Or-Cancel”, i.e. IOC order onto the trading pairs, once the next matching finishes, the result will be relayed back to BSC, which can be in either one or two assets. 5. Auction Trade Out: Such event will instruct BC to send an auction order to trade a certain amount of an asset in **CAoB** into another asset as much as possible and transfer out all the results back to BSC at the end of the auction. Auction function is upcoming on BC. There are some details for the Trade Out: 1. both can have a limit price (absolute or relative) for the trade; 2. the end result will be written as cross-chain packages to relay back to BSC; 3. cross-chain communication fees may be charged from the asset transferred back to BSC; 4. BSC contract maintains a mirror of the balance and outstanding orders on CAoB. No matter what error happens during the Trade Out, the final status will be propagated back to the originating contract and clear its internal state. With the above features, it simply adds the cross-chain transfer and exchange functions with high liquidity onto all the smart contracts on BSC. It will greatly add the application scenarios on Smart Contract and dApps, and make 1 chain +1 chain > 2 chains. # Staking and Governance Proof of Staked Authority brings in decentralization and community involvement. Its core logic can be summarized as the below. You may see similar ideas from other networks, especially Cosmos and EOS. 1. Token holders, including the validators, can put their tokens “**bonded**” into the stake. Token holders can **delegate** their tokens onto any validator or validator candidate, to expect it can become an actual validator, and later they can choose a different validator or candidate to **re-delegate** their tokens¹. 2. All validator candidates will be ranked by the number of bonded tokens on them, and the top ones will become the real validators. 3. Validators can share (part of) their blocking reward with their delegators. 4. Validators can suffer from “**Slashing**”, a punishment for their bad behaviors, such as double sign and/or instability. 5. There is an “**unbonding period**” for validators and delegators so that the system makes sure the tokens remain bonded when bad behaviors are caught, the responsible will get slashed during this period. ## Staking on BC Ideally, such staking and reward logic should be built into the blockchain, and automatically executed as the blocking happens. Cosmos Hub, who shares the same Tendermint consensus and libraries with Binance Chain, works in this way. BC has been preparing to enable staking logic since the design days. On the other side, as BSC wants to remain compatible with Ethereum as much as possible, it is a great challenge and efforts to implement such logic on it. This is especially true when Ethereum itself may move into a different Proof of Stake consensus protocol in a short (or longer) time. In order to keep the compatibility and reuse the good foundation of BC, the staking logic of BSC is implemented on BC: 1. The staking token is BNB, as it is a native token on both blockchains anyway 2. The staking, i.e. token bond and delegation actions and records for BSC, happens on BC. 3. The BSC validator set is determined by its staking and delegation logic, via a staking module built on BC for BSC, and propagated every day UTC 00:00 from BC to BSC via Cross-Chain communication. 4. The reward distribution happens on BC around every day UTC 00:00. ## Rewarding Both the validator update and reward distribution happen every day around UTC 00:00. This is to save the cost of frequent staking updates and block reward distribution. This cost can be significant, as the blocking reward is collected on BSC and distributed on BC to BSC validators and delegators. (Please note BC blocking fees will remain rewarding to BC validators only.) A deliberate delay is introduced here to make sure the distribution is fair: 1. The blocking reward will not be sent to validator right away, instead, they will be distributed and accumulated on a contract; 2. Upon receiving the validator set update into BSC, it will trigger a few cross-chain transfers to transfer the reward to custody addresses on the corresponding validators. The custody addresses are owned by the system so that the reward cannot be spent until the promised distribution to delegators happens. 3. In order to make the synchronization simpler and allocate time to accommodate slashing, the reward for N day will be only distributed in N+2 days. After the delegators get the reward, the left will be transferred to validators’ own reward addresses. ## Slashing Slashing is part of the on-chain governance, to ensure the malicious or negative behaviors are punished. BSC slash can be submitted by anyone. The transaction submission requires **slash evidence** and cost fees but also brings a larger reward when it is successful. So far there are two slashable cases. ### Double Sign It is quite a serious error and very likely deliberate offense when a validator signs more than one block with the same height and parent block. The reference protocol implementation should already have logic to prevent this, so only the malicious code can trigger this. When Double Sign happens, the validator should be removed from the Validator **Set** right away. Anyone can submit a slash request on BC with the evidence of Double Sign of BSC, which should contain the 2 block headers with the same height and parent block, sealed by the offending validator. Upon receiving the evidence, if the BC verifies it to be valid: 1. The validator will be removed from validator set by an instance BSC validator set update Cross-Chain update; 2. A predefined amount of BNB would be slashed from the **self-delegated** BNB of the validator; Both validator and its delegators will not receive the staking rewards. 3. Part of the slashed BNB will allocate to the submitter’s address, which is a reward and larger than the cost of submitting slash request transaction 4. The rest of the slashed BNB will allocate to the other validators’ custody addresses, and distributed to all delegators in the same way as blocking reward. ### Inavailability The liveness of BSC relies on everyone in the Proof of Staked Authority validator set can produce blocks timely when it is their turn. Validators can miss their turn due to any reason, especially problems in their hardware, software, configuration or network. This instability of the operation will hurt the performance and introduce more indeterministic into the system. There can be an internal smart contract responsible for recording the missed blocking metrics of each validator. Once the metrics are above the predefined threshold, the blocking reward for validator will not be relayed to BC for distribution but shared with other better validators. In such a way, the poorly-operating validator should be gradually voted out of the validator set as their delegators will receive less or none reward. If the metrics remain above another higher level of threshold, the validator will be dropped from the rotation, and this will be propagated back to BC, then a predefined amount of BNB would be slashed from the **self-delegated** BNB of the validator. Both validators and delegators will not receive their staking rewards. ### Governance Parameters There are many system parameters to control the behavior of the BSC, e.g. slash amount, cross-chain transfer fees. All these parameters will be determined by BSC Validator Set together through a proposal-vote process based on their staking. Such the process will be carried on BC, and the new parameter values will be picked up by corresponding system contracts via a cross-chain communication. # Relayers Relayers are responsible to submit Cross-Chain Communication Packages between the two blockchains. Due to the heterogeneous parallel chain structure, two different types of Relayers are created. ## BSC Relayers Relayers for BC to BSC communication referred to as “**BSC Relayers**”, or just simply “Relayers”. Relayer is a standalone process that can be run by anyone, and anywhere, except that Relayers must register themselves onto BSC and deposit a certain refundable amount of BNB. Only relaying requests from the registered Relayers will be accepted by BSC. The package they relay will be verified by the on-chain light client on BSC. The successful relay needs to pass enough verification and costs gas fees on BSC, and thus there should be incentive reward to encourage the community to run Relayers. ### Incentives There are two major communication types: 1. Users triggered Operations, such as `token bind` or `cross chain transfer`. Users must pay additional fee to as relayer reward. The reward will be shared with the relayers who sync the referenced blockchain headers. Besides, the reward won't be paid the relayers' accounts directly. A reward distribution mechanism will be brought in to avoid monopolization. 2. System Synchronization, such as delivering `refund package`(caused by failures of most oracle relayers), special blockchain header synchronization(header contains BC validatorset update), BSC staking package. System reward contract will pay reward to relayers' accounts directly. If some Relayers have faster networks and better hardware, they can monopolize all the package relaying and leave no reward to others. Thus fewer participants will join for relaying, which encourages centralization and harms the efficiency and security of the network. Ideally, due to the decentralization and dynamic re-election of BSC validators, one Relayer can hardly be always the first to relay every message. But in order to avoid the monopolization further, the rewarding economy is also specially designed to minimize such chance: 1. The reward for Relayers will be only distributed in batches, and one batch will cover a number of successful relayed packages. 2. The reward a Relayer can get from a batch distribution is not linearly in proportion to their number of successful relayed packages. Instead, except the first a few relays, the more a Relayer relays during a batch period, the less reward it will collect. ## Oracle Relayers Relayers for BSC to BC communication are using the “Oracle” model, and so-called “**Oracle Relayers**”. Each of the validators must, and only the ones of the validator set, run Oracle Relayers. Each Oracle Relayer watches the blockchain state change. Once it catches Cross-Chain Communication Packages, it will submit to vote for the requests. After Oracle Relayers from ⅔ of the voting power of BC validators vote for the changes, the cross-chain actions will be performed. Oracle Replayers should wait for enough blocks to confirm the finality on BSC before submitting and voting for the cross-chain communication packages onto BC. The cross-chain fees will be distributed to BC validators together with the normal BC blocking rewards. Such oracle type relaying depends on all the validators to support. As all the votes for the cross-chain communication packages are recorded on the blockchain, it is not hard to have a metric system to assess the performance of the Oracle Relayers. The poorest performer may have their rewards clawed back via another Slashing logic introduced in the future. # Outlook It is hard to conclude for Binance Chain, as it has never stopped evolving. The dual-chain strategy is to open the gate for users to take advantage of the fast transferring and trading on one side, and flexible and extendable programming on the other side, but it will be one stop along the development of Binance Chain. Here below are the topics to look into so as to facilitate the community better for more usability and extensibility: 1. Add different digital asset model for different business use cases 2. Enable more data feed, especially DEX market data, to be communicated from Binance DEX to BSC 3. Provide interface and compatibility to integrate with Ethereum, including its further upgrade, and other blockchain 4. Improve client side experience to manage wallets and use blockchain more conveniently ------ [1]: BNB business practitioners may provide other benefits for BNB delegators, as they do now for long term BNB holders.

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A polyfill for the ECMAScript proposal “Set Methods for JavaScript”

a TypeScript library for working with sets, with a ponyfill for TC39's Set Methods proposal

With the coming of new innovation, it is very not entirely obvious out on regarded openings accessible. The present circumstance is surprisingly more dreadful when one doesn't have the aptitude to tap on these changes. Indeed, this is the situation for organizations which have restricted information on site advancement and plan. Let's be honest, site administrations have colossally changed how the business functions. Thus, for genuine business people or organizations wishing to know the significance of sites this article gives simply that. Makes route simple With regards to having an effective online stage, the client should appreciate simple route. Basically, data gave on the site ought to be anything but difficult to get to. Hence, it is normal that the pages have quick stacking speeds. Accordingly, the site like online car parts store is needed to offer alternatives to additional guide in route. This incorporates the consideration of an inquiry box. Here, the clients will type on the hunt instrument and rapidly be coordinated to the segment. It is through excellent website composition that a designer's site accomplishes this. Beside building up the site, the designer is encouraged to routinely test the pages for simplicity of route. This is to kill or resolve bugs that may hamper the simplicity of stacking site pages. Keep in mind, on the off chance that a site has great route abilities, at that point it is ensured of more natural traffic. Will win with SEO Site design improvement has become a major perspective to see with regards to the site. With a large number of sites challenging to top in web index results pages (SERPs), web crawlers needed to acquaint a path with list locales. All things considered, it is through web improvement and plan that one will achieve a higher positioning. Here, boundaries, for example, title labels, utilization of catchphrases, picture advancement, connecting among others are thought of. This suggests that the site fulfills all the guidelines needed by be positioned top. Thusly, it is through streamlining that the site becomes easy to understand. Beside having the site, the website admins will hold the truly necessary clients. Under this, the web engineer is needed to incorporate highlights, for example, "embolden". This further involves the need to have short sighted plans on the pages. In this way, you will learn on the normal stacking speeds. It is through this improvement that the site shows up when various questions are made. So the site gets more taps on query items. Give visual substance on the site Truth be stated, selling unique item and administrations can be unwieldy. This is additionally muddled when an organization just gives huge loads of text about their forte. It is here that site advancement flavours things up. By reaching an expert website specialist, the entrepreneur will pick the pictures to utilize. Furthermore, the undertaking has the opportunity to pick the quantity of promotion recordings and pictures. This will be guided by the improvement on web indexes. The value of utilizing visual substance is that furnishes the clients with an away from of what the item resembles. Evidently, not all clients comprehend the administrations or items offered through content. So the consideration of pictures makes it easy to drive the message home. Other than this, utilization of pictures on the site effectively catches the consideration of the peruses. Prior to perusing the content, clients are frequently enthused about the picture. This improves the odds of having more clients to the site. By the by, website admins are encouraged to try not to stuff the visual information. This is on the grounds that it makes it hard for the client to decipher. It additionally brings down the positioning of the site of site improvement. So it is imperative to direct the utilization of symbolism. Increment the deals Business flourishing is profoundly moored on the quantity of deals made. All things considered, making a site can adequately help an undertaking to draw in more deals. As per Statista, online business exercises are foreseen to develop by 21.3% constantly 2019. This demonstrates that deals on sites are drawing in more clients. These days, more entrepreneurs are hurrying to direct their exchanges on the web. This is on the grounds that they have detected the incredible chance to exploit online deals. The expansion in deals goes inseparably with the developing number of clients. To additionally advance the business, website admins are urged to incorporate updates. It is through updates and overhauls that the site capacities are smoothened. Also, it shows the customers that the brand is committed to offering excellent administrations and data. Another approach to improve the deals is by including advancements. Here, you will make the truly necessary fluff among clients. This repeats into more deals. Also, this gives clients the feeling that they can gain reasonable items from the organization. Along these lines, all exercises on the site increase the value of the business somehow. Draw in lifetime customers to your business As the organization tries to spread its wings and extend, it is crucial to have steadfast clients. In any case, this can be an overwhelming undertaking particularly when the business person utilizes helpless strategies to accomplish this. It is now that improvement and planning of the site help out. The measurements recovered from the webpage empower website admins to screen the action of clients. Here, it is conceivable to feature the clients that have persistently upheld the brand. In the wake of pinpointing them, the entrepreneur should utilize inventive approaches to hold these clients. One creative alternative is compensating them with blessing vouchers and prizes. This will give them more motivation to get to your administrations or items. Keep in mind, it is through the site that the entrepreneur guarantees no reliable client is forgotten about. Another interesting thing about the lifetime clients is that they can advertise the brand. So they get to in a roundabout way work for the organization. This additionally lessens the expense of showcasing. Contact more customers One of the principle objectives of building up an endeavor is to fill regarding client base. Indeed, there is a heap of approaches to accomplish this yet each has various outcomes. With regards to web advancement and plan, there are some significant achievements accomplished. The first is that it puts the brand name out there. Basically, when the site is free on Worldwide Web then the organization is on a worldwide stage. This implies that the generally secret endeavor can be looked and give items to far away clients. It is these administrations that guide to lessen the distance for the clients to get to the exercises. Here, there are different choices, for example, buying or requesting the item on the site. Besides, the organization actually stays in contact with the neighborhood clients. Incredible right! Improving client commitment Routinely, an undertaking was facilitated in a physical structure. Nonetheless, circumstances are different as more administrations have gotten advanced. It is thus that business visionaries are urged to create wonderful sites. In this stage, it is very simple to keep a decent affinity with the end client. This involves recovering input on the administrations and items advertised. So you can associate with them and give fundamental reactions to the inquiries inquired. Furthermore, there is no restriction on the hour of action. Via robotizing the administrations on the site, customers are ensured of nonstop administrations. Additionally under client commitment, the blog or webpage proprietor can update clients as often as possible consistently. For example, in the event that new value charges are presented, at that point clients are among the first to know. Creative in showcasing and promoting For new businesses, having items and administrations out there is major in making progress. All things considered, showcasing methodologies prove to be useful in selling the brand. Contrasted with strategies, for example, the utilization of primary media and boards, site advancement is pocket-accommodating. It is through this online stage that an organization can show all important data. This incorporates; items/administrations offered, area, estimating, notoriety, contacts among others. The website admin can helpfully post alluring proposals on the site. Strangely, it is simpler to refresh astounding limits and offers on the site. So there is no personal time in trusting that the promotion will be set up. A similar case applies when the organization wishes to pull down a blog entry or advert. Also, the undertaking can work with a given figure. I'm not catching this' meaning? Basically, through SEO the business can realize where to put more accentuation. Also, the site gives forward-thinking data on the most recent promotion on the lookout. Smoothing out the brand While presenting a site for the organization, it is critical that the brand name be predictable. It is through site advancement and website architecture that this is refined. Here, the website admin will make a particular brand name that will be included on all the web crawlers. So there is no variety whether or not the site is on Bing or Google. Moreover, the brand logo and name is comparable all through. This decreases the odds of disarray with other serious brands. This likewise streams down to the issue of consistency. It is foreseen that the organization keeps a consistent following of their clients. In the event of rebranding, the website admin ought to guarantee that the due system is followed. Whenever this is thought of, at that point the web indexes will naturally refresh the records. In this way, when clients look for the brand will get to the correct thing. One more approach to see this is that the site can help to advise customers regarding changes. As the organization utilizes different methods, for example, online media, the site can likewise contribute. Here, the website admin can even prod the peruses of another look before dispatch. All things considered, these progressions can be executed all through. How Website Development and Web Design Helps Enterprises to Make Profits Saving on expenses Shockingly, numerous start up and significant organization fall flat in their endeavour because of low benefits. This is regardless of having extraordinary assumption for the speculation made. Some portion of the disappointment is ascribed to commitment of helpless business strategies, for example, carelessness of web administrations. It ought to be realized that site advancement and configuration is reasonable. By appropriately organizing the substance, the website admin saves a great deal of cost during web advancement. The cost saving angle stretches out to the modern acquires the site will bring to the business. Moreover, the site lessens the distance covered to contact the clients. In the event that one was to actually converse with possible clients, at that point it would be asset concentrated. It is here that web administrations come in. Besides, reducing such additional expenses implies that the business is gathering more benefit. Allowing promotions on the site Entrepreneurs probably go over the numerous advertisements been communicated on different site. Indeed, this is one of the fascinating ways an undertaking can draw in more benefit. Fundamentally, the organization will be drawn closer by different ventures to have their advertisements run on the site. As a component of promoting and publicizing, the host site will charge a specific add up to have the advert. Accordingly, it is essential to think of an interesting and famous site. By zeroing in on this, the website admin will put the site on the spotlight. The huge champs here are those whose site pulls in more undertakings and promotions. E-Commerce As specified previously, pre-cuts and administrations have moved from the stores to online stages. One of the significant online scenes is the site. We should take the case of Amazon, figured out how to add to 44 percent of the complete web based business deals in the United States. In addition, Statista featured that the organization has figured out how to make $108.35 million out of 2017. After the top to bottom elaboration of the significance of a site, certain viewpoints come out clear. The first is that business undertakings should try to create and plan a custom site. Also, it is significant to put the best foot forward. So it is foreseen that the site or blog meets and outperforms the rules. Having said this, it is dependent upon the website admin to take that wide action and build up a site. Tag : website designing company in delhi, website development company in delhi

Streamline your Business with Quote to Cash From the initial quotation to the final payment, the quote-to-cash system improves the whole customer-centric (final) stages of the sales funnel. Quote-to-cash allows you to personalize presentations for each customer, meeting their specific requirements. After customizing the price, the next natural step is to develop a formal quote to entice consumers who are already contemplating purchasing from your company. A quote that is accurate, timely, and simple to understand could just seal the deal for your company. With the help of professional Salesforce Consultants, it is possible to completely speed up and smoothen the quote-to-cash process by pre-programming specific rules for bulk discounts, approvals, and customizations. Build a Smooth Sales Cycle For the whole sales cycle, the quote to cash process flow incorporates elements of sales, account management, order fulfilment, billing, and accounts receivables services. It is a series of actions conducted by the sales team that begins with the original quote. It continues through the process of negotiating, fulfilling, and billing, collecting and preparing for the next sale. These steps are still considered separate processes in many firms. However, it's worth emphasizing that individual management causes inefficiencies and redundancy in what could otherwise be a successful sales cycle. Because each of these phases in the quote to cash salesforce is customer-centric and interconnected, they should be combined into a unified technology-driven business process. This is precisely what quote to cash offers. Fewer Errors Sales must be adaptable, but that does not mean that everything is feasible. If a sales representative makes a mistake and offers a product or service that isn't economical, arriving at an agreement is hectic. Parties involved bouncing back and forth between sales, finance and accounting, and the potential customer until everyone comes to an agreement. This is a time-consuming and unnecessary procedure. Your sales, finance, and accounting teams will have fewer manual tasks to perform with the quote-to-cash process. This means less potential for erroneous or double-entry. Ideally, there should be no errors at all at key steps such as signing an agreement or sending out invoices. An effective quote-to-sales solution should not only automate a large part of the manual data entry that sales and finance currently struggle with. It should also automatically offer guidance to sales when they first draft proposals. Sales can make use of rules set by finance to ensure that they’re following the best methods, such as pre-approved templates and terms. 360 Degree Visibility of Sales Process A Quote to Cash (QTC) workflow is the most important part of revenue generation. A 360-degree view will enable a QTC workflow that is automated, fluid, and error-free. It provides sales professionals with the tools they need to develop accurate proposals and estimates while staying within the organizations permitted discount guidelines. By minimizing errors and interdepartmental back and forth, the sales cycle can be cut in half. Bringing legal and financial teams together allows for a better contract and revenue management. They define quotes and keep the risk of revenue recognition errors to a minimum. Upselling, cross-selling, and contract renewal revenue opportunities are now possible. Providing a deep dive into sales data and KPIs will allow you to make real-time adjustments to sales and marketing initiatives. Automated Renewals Prices are altered multiple times during the course of a sale, thus configure price quote adjustments must be made accurately and promptly. Otherwise, stakeholders are left in the dark, which can hinder lead progress. If contracts and sales are followed up promptly, more renewals occur. Renewals are a guaranteed stream of money for the business. Your clients will receive and pay their invoices faster as a result of better alignment, fewer errors, and a smoother quote-to-cash salesforce workflow. That means more satisfied customers who return because excellent service makes doing business with you easier. https://www.crmit.com/products/quote-to-cash.html

This is an online active discriminant analysis classifier. We propose a discriminant analysis (DA) classifier that uses online active learning to address the need for the frequent training of myoelectric interfaces due to covariate shift. This online classifier is initially trained using a small set of examples, and then updated over time using streaming data that are interactively labeled by a user or pseudo-labeled by a softlabeling technique. We prove, theoretically, that this yields the same model as training a DA classifier via full batch learning. We then provide experimental evidence that our approach improves the performance of DA classifiers and is robust to mislabeled data, and that our soft-labeling technique has better performance than existing state-of-the-art methods.We argue that our proposal is suitable for real-time applications, as its time complexity w.r.t. the streaming data remains constant.

In the journey of exploring the flown of Data science and predictivemodeling, I explored this Very interesting algorithm k-nearest neighbors (KNN) algorithm.I have tried to leverage the ability of the Classification algorithm whichcomes under Supervised learning of Section of predictive modeling. I used the KNN algorithm for the classification of approvalrate of the projects submitted by the teachers of the United states for students.The main business context of the project was to reduce the manualevaluation of the projects that were done by volunteers as the process of evaluationcan take a long time, which may also be based on some factors and some irreducibleerrors could also be introduced into the processes. Some other import points are.·      How to scale current manual processes andresources to screen 500,000 projects so that they can be posted as quickly andas efficiently as possible·      How to increase the consistency of projectvetting across different volunteers to improve the experience for teachers·      How to focus volunteer time on the applicationsthat need the most assistance.The goal of the project is to predict whether or not aDonorsChoose.org project proposal submitted by a teacher will be approved,using the text of project descriptions as well as additional metadata about theproject, teacher, and school. DonorsChoose.org can then use this information toidentify projects most likely to need further review before approvalThe steps followed for Data Preparation and PredictiveModeling is as follows:Note: Giving Unstructured data (Garbage in common terms) toa machine-learning algorithm gives you random data (Garbage) again. All the code is written in a very clean and untestablemanner ignoring fancy methods where ever possible and reference for everything thatis used in coding is given above the code so that is it easy for everyone tounderstand the code and leverage the potential that AI has because I believein growing together and helping others as this makes me a great team player. Italso increases the storytelling ability and to represent data.For the implementation of all the code, I have used the SKlearn Library.  1.      Apply KNN (brute force version) on thesefeature sets1.      I have formed the different sets of thedata for checking which Vectorization of the text data works better than others.Set 1: categorical, numericalfeatures + project title (BOW) + preprocessed essay (BOW)Set 2: categorical, numericalfeatures + project title (TFIDF)+ preprocessed essay (TFIDF)Set 3: categorical, numericalfeatures + project title (AVG W2V) + preprocessed essay (AVG W2V)Set 4: categorical, numericalfeatures + project title (TFIDF W2V) + preprocessed essay (TFIDF W2V)2.      Hyperparameter tuning to find best K andMetrix used for evaluation of the model. 1.      Find the best hyperparameter which results inthe maximum AUC value2.    Find the best hyperparameter using k-foldcross-validation (or) simple cross-validation data3.  Use grid search-cv or random search-cv or write your own for loops to dothis task 3.      Representation of results1.      Plotting the performance of model both on traindata and cross-validation data for each hyperparameter.  2.      Once you find the best hyperparameter, you needto train your model-M using the best hyper-param. Now, find the AUC on testdata and plot the ROC curve on both train and test using model-M. 3.      Along with plotting ROC curve, you need to printthe confusion matrix with predicted and original labels of test data points  4.      . Select top 2000 features from the featureSet 2 using `SelectKBest` and then apply KNN on top of these features(this thesection wherein we select the best features from all the features we have)1.      Repeat the steps 2 and 3 on the data matrixafter feature selection 5.      Conclusion1.      Summarize the results at the end of thenotebook, summarizing is done in the table format.      

In the journey of exploring the flied of Data science and predictivemodeling, I explored this Very interesting algorithm Naive Bayes algorithm. I havetried to leverage the ability of the Classification algorithm which comes underSupervised learning of Section of predictive modeling. I used the Naive Bayes algorithm for the classification ofapproval rate of the projects submitted by the teachers of United states for students.The main business context of the Project was to reduce the manualevaluation of the projects that was done by volunteers as the process of evaluationcan take long time, which may also be biased on some factors and some irreducibleerrors could also be introduced into the processes. Some other import points are.·      How to scale current manual processes andresources to screen 500,000 projects so that they can be posted as quickly andas efficiently as possible·      How to increase the consistency of projectvetting across different volunteers to improve the experience for teachers·      How to focus volunteer time on the applicationsthat need the most assistance.The goal of the Project is to predict whether or not aDonorsChoose.org project proposal submitted by a teacher will be approved,using the text of project descriptions as well as additional metadata about theproject, teacher, and school. DonorsChoose.org can then use this information toidentify projects most likely to need further review before approvalThe steps followed for Data Preparation and PredictiveModeling is as follows:Note: Giving Unstructured data (Garbage in common terms) toa machine learning algorithm gives you random data (Garbage) again. All the code is written in a very clean and untestablemanner ignoring fancy methods where ever possible and reference for everything thatis used in coding is given above the code so that is it easy for everyone tounderstand the code and leverage the potential that AI has, because I believein growing together and helping others as this makes me a great team player . Italso increases the story telling ability and to represent data.For implementation of all the code I have used the SKlearn Library.  1.      Applying Multinomial NB on these featuresetsSet 1: categorical, numericalfeatures + preprocessed_eassay (BOW)Set 2: categorical, numericalfeatures + preprocessed_eassay (TFIDF)2.      The hyper parameter tuning(find best alpha:smoothing parameter)1.      Find the best hyper parameter which will givethe maximum AUC value.2.      find the best hyper parameter using k-fold crossvalidation (use GridsearchCV or RandomsearchCV)/simple cross validation data(write for loop to iterate over hyper parameter values)3.       Representationof results1.      plot the performance of model both on train dataand cross validation data for each hyper parameter, like shown in the figure 2.      Once after you found the best hyper parameter,you need to train your model with it, and find the AUC on test data and plotthe ROC curve on both train and test. 3.      Along with plotting ROC curve, you need to printthe confusion matrix with predicted and original labels of test data points 4.      The top 20 features from either from feature Set1 or feature Set 2 using absolute values of `feature_log_prob_ ` parameter of`MultinomialNB` (https://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/generated/sklearn.naive_bayes.MultinomialNB.html)and print their corresponding feature names      4.  You need to summarize the results at the endof the notebook, summarize it in the table format 

An ES proposal to add a new set of helper methods to Object for dealing with objects having prototypes.

A survey of state of the art methods for causal structure learning and active causal learning along with a proposal for causal structure learning based on approximately optimal set of interventions

Computing the likelihood of real biological data-sets consistent with the infinite sites model commonly requires intervention of MCMC or impor- tance sampling based methods. This is due to the computational challenge posed by evaluating the exact likelihood of such data. In this project we focus on importance sampling based methods for likelihood approxima- tion of infinite sites data (in the absence of recombination). A newly developed counting scheme allows us to compute the number of histories of a given data set quickly. We develop the ’Combinatorial Importance Sampler’. The proposal distribution of the new sampling scheme assigns probabilities to events directly proportional to the number of histories of the parental configuration corresponding to the event. This follows from our conjecture that it is likely that the probability of an observed sample to have descended from a particular ancestral configuration is strongly correlated to the number of histories of that configuration. We implement the counting scheme and the ’Combinatorial Importance Sampler’ as well as three previously implemented schemes, namely the Griffiths-Tavar ́e, Stephens-Donnelly and Hobolth importance samplers. The four schemes are analysed on data sets of different sizes, including simulated data. A series of experiments are conducted to evaluate the performance of the samplers. Additionally, we attempt to understand the conditions under which the Combinatorial Importance Sampler fails to achieve desired results.

In the journey of exploring the flied of Data science and predictivemodeling, I explored this Very interesting algorithm Logistic Regression algorithm.I have tried to leverage the ability of the Classification algorithm whichcomes under Supervised learning of Section of predictive modeling. I used the Logistic Regression algorithm for theclassification of approval rate of the projects submitted by the teachers ofUnited states for students.The main business context of the Project was to reduce the manualevaluation of the projects that was done by volunteers as the process of evaluationcan take long time, which may also be biased on some factors and some irreducibleerrors could also be introduced into the processes. Some other import points are.·      How to scale current manual processes andresources to screen 500,000 projects so that they can be posted as quickly andas efficiently as possible·      How to increase the consistency of projectvetting across different volunteers to improve the experience for teachers·      How to focus volunteer time on the applicationsthat need the most assistance.The goal of the Project is to predict whether or not aDonorsChoose.org project proposal submitted by a teacher will be approved,using the text of project descriptions as well as additional metadata about theproject, teacher, and school. DonorsChoose.org can then use this information toidentify projects most likely to need further review before approvalThe steps followed for Data Preparation and PredictiveModeling is as follows:Note: Giving Unstructured data (Garbage in common terms) toa machine learning algorithm gives you random data (Garbage) again. All the code is written in a very clean and untestablemanner ignoring fancy methods where ever possible and reference for everything thatis used in coding is given above the code so that is it easy for everyone tounderstand the code and leverage the potential that AI has, because I believein growing together and helping others as this makes me a great team player . Italso increases the story telling ability and to represent data.For implementation of all the code I have used the SKlearn Library.  1.      Logistic Regression (either SGDClassifierwith log loss, or LogisticRegression) on these feature setsSet 1: categorical, numerical features+ project_title(BOW) + preprocessed_eassay (`BOW with bi-grams` with`min_df=10` and `max_features=5000`)Set 2: categorical, numericalfeatures + project_title(TFIDF)+ preprocessed_eassay (`TFIDF with bi-grams`with `min_df=10` and `max_features=5000`)Set 3: categorical, numericalfeatures + project_title(AVG W2V)+ preprocessed_eassay (AVG W2V)Set 4: categorical, numericalfeatures + project_title(TFIDF W2V)+ preprocessed_essay (TFIDF W2V) 2.      Hyper parameter tuning (find best hyperparameters corresponding the algorithm that you choose)1.      Find the best hyper parameter which will givethe maximum AUC value2.      Find the best hyper parameter using k-fold crossvalidation or simple cross validation data3.      Use gridsearch cv or random search cv or you canalso write your own for loops to do this task of hyperparameter tuning 3.      Representation of results1.      You need to plot the performance of model bothon train data and cross validation data for each hyper parameter, like shown inthe figure. 2.      Once after you found the best hyper parameter,you need to train your model with it, and find the AUC on test data and plotthe ROC curve on both train and test. 3.      Along with plotting ROC curve, you need to printthe confusion matrix with predicted and original labels of test data points.Please visualize your confusion matrices using seaborn heatmaps.  Task-2 Apply Logistic Regression on the belowfeature set Set 5 by finding the best hyper parameter as suggested in step 2and step 3.Consider these set of features Set 5 :school state : categorical dataclean categories : categorical dataclean subcategories : categorical dataproject_grade_category :categorical datateacher prefix : categorical dataquantity : numerical datateacher_number_of_previously_posted_projects : numerical dataprice : numerical datasentiment score's of each of the essay : numerical datanumber of words in the title : numerical datanumber of words in the combine essays : numerical dataAnd apply the Logistic regression on these features byfinding the best hyper paramter as suggested in step 2 and step 3 4 . ConclusionYou need to summarize the results at the end of thenotebook, summarize it in the table format. To print out a table please referto this pretty table library link.

This is the base from which information can be contributed *exclusively through refinement and not confinement*, and which consolidates all information useful to all services that utilize it. Individual services and improvement proposals are created as derivative branches and are pulled in when verified to not conflict with the "parameters" set for improving this base branch. The purpose of this is to create a means for distributed work to be accomplished for improving services in a imperial way with the best proposed methods towards approaching "contributory democracy". This is defined here as information that is distributed, utilized, and revised without being controlled or confined. It is information itself, and information itself improving information delivery. The primary "parameter" for this branch is that it is not bound by its parameters, but by whether or not the information provided to be included in it is being written into the branch in a way that does not include confining information. Any branches which include information that refute or contribute to the current model of this branch are to included into it.

What is a PhD proposal? A PhD proposal is an outline of your proposed project that is intended to: •Define a clear question and way to deal with noting it •Highlight its originality as well as the significance •Explain how it adds to, creates existing writing in the field •Persuade potential supervisors or potential funders of the significance of the work, and why you are the right person to attempt it Research proposals may very long, so it is imperative to check with the department to which you are applying to check word breaking points and rules. As a rule, a proposition ought to be around 3,000 words which you compose as a major aspect of the application procedure. What is the research proposal for? Potential supervisors, admissions tutors or potentially funders use research proposals to assess to survey the quality and originality of your ideas, your skills in basic reasoning and the possibility of the research project. Think in all respects cautiously about the extent of your exploration and be set up to clarify how you will finish it inside this time period. Research recommendations are additionally used to survey your ability in the territory in which you need to direct research, you learning of the current writing. Besides, they are utilized to survey and allot suitable supervision groups. On the off chance that you are keen on crafted by a specific potential manager and particularly on the off chance that you have talked about your work with this individual make certain to make reference to this in your proposition. Keep in mind, in any case, that it may not be conceivable to ensure that you are managed by a particular scholarly. Significantly, it is likewise an open door for you to impart your energy in the branch of knowledge and to make an influential contention about what your venture can achieve. In spite of the fact that the proposition ought to incorporate a diagram, it ought to likewise be drawn closer as an influential article that seems to be, as a chance to build up the consideration of readers and convince them regarding the significance of your task. Read More: Writing The Best Synopsis In No Time Is the Research Proposal Good? No. Great PhD proposals develop as the work advances. It is typical for students to refine their unique proposal in light of point by point literature surveys, further thought of research methodologies and remarks got from the supervisors. It is valuable to see your proposal as an underlying blueprint as opposed to an outline of the ‘last item’. Organizing a Research Proposal Writing It would be ideal if you check cautiously with every division to see if a particular layout is given or required. As a rule, nonetheless, the accompanying components are critical in a decent research proposition: Title This can change, however, make a point to incorporate significant ‘catchphrases’ that will relate your proposition to applicable potential managers, subsidizing plans, etc. Ensure that your title goes past basically portraying the topic – it should give a sign of your methodology or key inquiries. Review of the exploration In this area, you ought to give a short outline of your examination and where it fits inside the current scholarly talks, discussions or writing. Be as explicit as conceivable in recognizing impacts or discussions you wish to connect with, however, make an effort not to get the leadoff track into a long interpretation of explicit sources. Or maybe, the fact of the matter is to portray out the setting into which your work will fit. You ought to likewise utilize this segment to make interfaces between your exploration and the current qualities of the office to which you are applying. Visit fitting sites to get some answers concerning existing examination occurring in the division and how your venture can supplement this. Make certain to build up a strong and persuading system for your exploration in this area. This ought to include: • Research questions and the purpose behind asking them • The significant methodology you will take and basis • Significance of the exploration Situating of the exploration This segment ought to talk about the writings which you accept are most critical to the task, exhibit your comprehension of the examination issues, and distinguish existing holes that the exploration is proposed to address. This area is planned to ‘sign-post’ and contextualize your exploration questions, not to give a nitty-gritty investigation of existing discussions. Read More: Statistical Data Analysis Methods and Importance Research plan and approach This area should spread out, in clear terms, the manner by which you will structure your exploration and the particular techniques you will utilize. Research configuration ought to incorporate: •The parameters of the examination •An exchange of the general methodology and your justification for embracing this methodology •Specific points and goals •A brief talk of the course of events for accomplishing this An all around created methodology section is vital, especially on the off chance that you mean to direct critical exact research. Make sure to include specific techniques, not simply your general methodology. This ought to include: sorts of resources consulted; strategies for gathering and breaking down information; explicit systems; and the basis for embracing these techniques. Intellectslinksup USA helps and serves students with Ph.D. Research Guidance and Dissertation Writing Services. 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What is a PhD proposal? A PhD proposal is an outline of your proposed project that is intended to: •Define a clear question and way to deal with noting it •Highlight its originality as well as the significance •Explain how it adds to, creates existing writing in the field •Persuade potential supervisors or potential funders of the significance of the work, and why you are the right person to attempt it Research proposals may very long, so it is imperative to check with the department to which you are applying to check word breaking points and rules. As a rule, a proposition ought to be around 3,000 words which you compose as a major aspect of the application procedure. What is the research proposal for? Potential supervisors, admissions tutors or potentially funders use research proposals to assess to survey the quality and originality of your ideas, your skills in basic reasoning and the possibility of the research project. Think in all respects cautiously about the extent of your exploration and be set up to clarify how you will finish it inside this time period. Research recommendations are additionally used to survey your ability in the territory in which you need to direct research, you learning of the current writing. Besides, they are utilized to survey and allot suitable supervision groups. On the off chance that you are keen on crafted by a specific potential manager and particularly on the off chance that you have talked about your work with this individual make certain to make reference to this in your proposition. Keep in mind, in any case, that it may not be conceivable to ensure that you are managed by a particular scholarly. Significantly, it is likewise an open door for you to impart your energy in the branch of knowledge and to make an influential contention about what your venture can achieve. In spite of the fact that the proposition ought to incorporate a diagram, it ought to likewise be drawn closer as an influential article that seems to be, as a chance to build up the consideration of readers and convince them regarding the significance of your task. Read More: Writing The Best Synopsis In No Time Is the Research Proposal Good? No. Great PhD proposals develop as the work advances. It is typical for students to refine their unique proposal in light of point by point literature surveys, further thought of research methodologies and remarks got from the supervisors. It is valuable to see your proposal as an underlying blueprint as opposed to an outline of the ‘last item’. Organizing a Research Proposal Writing It would be ideal if you check cautiously with every division to see if a particular layout is given or required. As a rule, nonetheless, the accompanying components are critical in a decent research proposition: Title This can change, however, make a point to incorporate significant ‘catchphrases’ that will relate your proposition to applicable potential managers, subsidizing plans, etc. Ensure that your title goes past basically portraying the topic – it should give a sign of your methodology or key inquiries. Review of the exploration In this area, you ought to give a short outline of your examination and where it fits inside the current scholarly talks, discussions or writing. Be as explicit as conceivable in recognizing impacts or discussions you wish to connect with, however, make an effort not to get the leadoff track into a long interpretation of explicit sources. Or maybe, the fact of the matter is to portray out the setting into which your work will fit. You ought to likewise utilize this segment to make interfaces between your exploration and the current qualities of the office to which you are applying. Visit fitting sites to get some answers concerning existing examination occurring in the division and how your venture can supplement this. Make certain to build up a strong and persuading system for your exploration in this area. This ought to include: • Research questions and the purpose behind asking them • The significant methodology you will take and basis • Significance of the exploration Situating of the exploration This segment ought to talk about the writings which you accept are most critical to the task, exhibit your comprehension of the examination issues, and distinguish existing holes that the exploration is proposed to address. This area is planned to ‘sign-post’ and contextualize your exploration questions, not to give a nitty-gritty investigation of existing discussions. Read More: Statistical Data Analysis Methods and Importance Research plan and approach This area should spread out, in clear terms, the manner by which you will structure your exploration and the particular techniques you will utilize. Research configuration ought to incorporate: •The parameters of the examination •An exchange of the general methodology and your justification for embracing this methodology •Specific points and goals •A brief talk of the course of events for accomplishing this An all around created methodology section is vital, especially on the off chance that you mean to direct critical exact research. Make sure to include specific techniques, not simply your general methodology. This ought to include: sorts of resources consulted; strategies for gathering and breaking down information; explicit systems; and the basis for embracing these techniques. Intellectslinksup USA helps and serves students with Ph.D. Research Guidance and Dissertation Writing Services. 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Today many companies, including startups and small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), use cloud technology for computing and storage. This technology facilitates having adequate and flexible hardware and software infrastructure to support business processes. However, many companies, mostly SMEs, have not considered the implementation of security protocols to guarantee confidentiality, integrity and privacy of the information or they are not sure of migrating to the cloud because there is a growing concern regarding compliance with privacy or confidentiality requirements for sensitive data. Different works have identified and addressed the problems of confidentiality, integrity and privacy of the data stored and processed in the cloud, creating varied proposals. However, the available jobs focus on some aspects while neglecting others, while the services available in the cloud charge for security services that should be essential. It is important to find an appropriate balance between confidentiality, integrity, cost, and performance. This work proposes the design and implementation of a model that allows to store files in the cloud and share them among authorized users, guaranteeing their confidentiality, integrity and privacy, minimizing response time and supporting the associated policy administration process, in order to facilitate the use of the model in real environments. The model integrates a label-based data classification method, this allows users to easily define the confidentiality and integrity requirements associated with the data they want to store in the cloud. Based on the labels, the model defines a set of security policies for data protection, combining encryption, fragmentation and data distribution. Based on the model, a prototype was implemented that allows users to classify the information and implement the defined policies, thus guaranteeing the confidentiality and integrity of the stored information. In addition, it allows files to be shared with users authorized by the owner. The prototype offers users the possibility of managing security for their information, transparently and at no additional cost since everything is managed by the system thus it does not require a contract of security services with a cloud provider.

About Project Euler Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) Where should I start? That depends on your background. There are two tables containing problems. The Recent problems table lists the ten most recently published problems, so if you are new to Project Euler then you may prefer to start with the Archives to get a feel for the different types/difficulties of our problems. The first one-hundred or so problems are generally considered to be easier than the problems which follow. In the archives table you will be able to see how many people have solved each problem; as a general rule of thumb the more people that have solved it, the easier it is. To assist further there is a difficulty rating system which may also help you decide where to start. You are able to sort the problems in the archives table on ID, Solved By, or Difficulty. I've written my program but should it take days to get to the answer? Absolutely not! Each problem has been designed according to a "one-minute rule", which means that although it may take several hours to design a successful algorithm with more difficult problems, an efficient implementation will allow a solution to be obtained on a modestly powered computer in less than one minute. Does it matter if it takes more than one minute to solve? Of course not, but that should provide the impetus to return to the problem and see how you can improve your approach. But remember that once you've solved a particular problem you will be able to access a thread relating to that problem and it is here that you may be able to pick some tips from others that have solved it. I solved it by using a search engine, does that matter? Making use of the internet to research a problem is to be encouraged as there could be hidden treasures of mathematics to be discovered beneath the surface of many of these problems. However, there is a fine line between researching ideas and using the answer you found on another website. If you photocopy a crossword solution then what have you achieved? I've checked my program ten times now and I keep getting told my answer is wrong! Have you made a mistake? With newly released problems it is quite possible that a small error may have slipped through the net, or maybe the wording is slightly ambiguous and the problem has not been explained as well as it could. However, when so many people have hit the target and one marksman misses ten times on the run, he/she can hardly shoot his/her own foot and conclude that because the gun is working properly the fault must lie in the target. Do you have any hints on solving problems? Read the details of the problem very carefully and make note of any example cases given. Experiment with pencil and paper to get a feel for the ideas behind the problem. If the ideas are new to you, use the internet or books to get some background; the problem should contain clues as to what to look-up. Try writing a program to generate for simple cases and check that your output agrees with the example cases; this will confirm you've understood the problem and are heading in the right direction. Based on this try to extrapolate to estimate the time it will take to get the final answer and if it's going to take significantly more than a minute rethink your strategy. What are the levels and awards all about? For every twenty-five problems you solve you will advance one level, which should help encourage you to make short term targets. The awards are earned for a variety of reasons and if you are wondering what you need to do to earn an award go to the Statistics page and you can see a complete list of current awards. In the case of both levels and awards you can click on the image on the Statistics page to see which members are currently at that level or who has earned a particular award. It is hoped that the levels and awards will provide a bit of extra fun as you solve the problems. There seems to be discussion threads for each problem, so why can't I access some of them? You are only able to access a thread for a particular problem once you have solved it. Once you have access you will be able to see how other members have solved the problem, discuss methods, and share your insights. What is Kudos? The purpose of Kudos is to let the poster or other members know that you found a particular post extremely helpful, useful, or well written. You can award up to 5 Kudos points to each problem thread, so only use when you think a post really deserves it. Why do some posts disappear? Only the first one hundred posts are automatically made permanent. After this only the most recent one hundred posts are kept; older posts will be automatically deleted. However, if a particularly good post is made then one of the administrators may make a post permanent. Kudos is a useful way to alert administrators to a post which members have found helpful and should be made permanent. Is there anywhere else we can discuss and meet other members? Indeed there is! There is an alternative phpBB official forum which has been set up to allow members to engage in general discussions, share ideas relating to problem solving and programming, make suggestions about the website, and ask for clarification on the wording of a particular problem. How do I access the alternative forum? The link is given below, but please be aware that your account at this website has not been automatically transferred to the alternative forum and you will need to set up a separate account; in order to complete the registration process you will require the current registration key found on your Account page. Forum Web Address: https://projecteuler.chat Also please note that your posts will be visible to all members and you are requested to be thoughtful in not posting anything that might explicitly give away how to solve a particular problem. I learned so much solving problem XXX so is it okay to publish my solution elsewhere? It appears that you have answered your own question. There is nothing quite like that "Aha!" moment when you finally beat a problem which you have been working on for some time. It is often through the best of intentions in wishing to share our insights so that others can enjoy that moment too. Sadly, however, that will not be the case for your readers. Real learning is an active process and seeing how it is done is a long way from experiencing that epiphany of discovery. Please do not deny others what you have so richly valued yourself. I have a wonderful idea for a new problem, what should I do? That is great news! Many members have contributed new problem ideas and have then become involved in the problem development process of their initial proposal. If you have an idea then you need to do the following: Carefully read the following post at our official forum which outlines the process: https://projecteuler.chat/viewtopic.php?f=26&t=510 Only if you agree to the terms of the process then email your proposal to: newproblem@projecteuler.net How can I contact Project Euler? The preferred way to contact a Project Euler team member is via the alternative phpBB forum given above. The team visit regularly and are able to deal with most issues quickly and efficiently; see How do I access the alternative forum? How did Project Euler all start? Project Euler was started by Colin Hughes (a.k.a. euler) in October 2001 as a sub-section on mathschallenge.net. Who could have known how popular these types of problems would turn out to be? Since then the membership has continued to grow and Project Euler moved to its own domain in 2006. Who runs Project Euler? Ideas for new problems come from our own members and they are developed by a team of hard working and talented mathematicians and programmers. So to put it simply, it is the members that run Project Euler. Can I make a donation? Absolutely! Project Euler is entirely financed by its own members, so if you have enjoyed the problems and would like to give something back by helping with the running costs then any donations are gratefully received. PayPal � The safer, easier way to pay online. DISCLAIMER The popularity of Project Euler has increased tremendously over the years since its inception through the concerted effort of numerous people. Members have generally taken pride in showing their achievements. The obvious place to do so is the forum that is set up for each problem. However the increasing popularity has also been attracting people with a different agenda. With so many internet sites publishing answers for the PE problems instead of using the forum on this site, some people now seem to take pride in gathering and submitting those answers for whatever reason. It is humanly impossible for Project Euler, or indeed any member, to reliably differentiate those people from members that have solved the problems under their own steam. The ranking lists on Project Euler should be interpreted for what they are: an indication of the number of correct answers submitted by the member in question and validated by our answer checker. Individual members themselves know best what they have achieved on their own. Laying too much stress on competition might spoil the fun of problem solving which is one of the purposes of Project Euler. Also, any claim from a member about his own achievement cannot be supported as trustworthy by Project Euler. If critical, other means from third parties would be required to verify such claims. Providing quality problems for entertainment and educational purposes will continue to be the main goal of Project Euler, regardless of the intentions of a minority of the members. "Project Euler exists to encourage, challenge, and develop the skills and enjoyment of anyone with an interest in the fascinating world of mathematics."